Critical Race Theory and Feminism in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn 

by Rochelle Holloway

Runner-up for Best Upper Division Paper

 The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was published in 1884 and is the sequel to The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. This heartwarming story is the unlikely friendship between an abused teenager and a runaway slave. It is an adventure story about friendship and freedom. Huckleberry Finn wants to break free from the constraints of being “sivilized [sic]” (Twain 1), and Jim is fleeing from actual chains of slavery. This novel was banned almost immediately after it was published, and a thorough scrutinization from the perspective of critical race theory reveals a few of the reasons it was regarded as controversial. Furthermore, for years, feminism theory has been a source of content in this novel.

The author, Mark Twain, was notorious for having sympathy with black people and for his discontent with slavery. An article about Twain’s life summarizes tha,t as a young man, he witnessed a slaveowner throw a rock at his slave so hard that it killed him.  This upset Twain greatly, and he felt compelled to write about how slaves were treated and show a more realistic portrayal of African American people, instead of the stereotypes that were so often used (Lombardi).  During the time of slavery and segregation, people of color were not written about in a positive light. However, in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, the secondary character is an African American man named Jim. Jim is a very well-developed character. Readers have a sense of who he is as a person, and their hearts break for him all at the same time.  He is proven to be intelligent and more of an adult than any other adult in the book.  Jim shows compassion and genuine love to Huck. In Chapter 9, the two of them find a dead body:  “It’s a dead man. Yes, indeedy; naked, too. He’s ben shot in de back. I reck’n he’s ben dead two er three days. Come in, Huck, but doan’ look at his face – it’s too gashly” (Twain 38).  Jim sees immediately that the corpse is Huck’s father. He tells him not to look at the face because it is too horrific. However, at the end of the book, Huck realizes that he must go back to St. Petersburg, and he is afraid to be around his father again. Jim says, he “aint’ a-comin’ back no mo’, Huck” (Twain 328). When Huck persists and says that he will, Jim says, “Doan’ you ‘member de house dat was flot’n down de river en dey wuz a man in dah, kivered up, en I went in en unkivered him en didn’ let you come in, kase dat wuz him” (Twain 220). It is then that Jim tells Huck that the body that they found previously was in fact Huck’s father. Jim says this so Huck will stop worrying about going back and if his money was still there.

The language that is used in the book is extremely important to the story that the author is wanting to tell. During the late 1800’s, African American people were not generally given a voice, let alone the opportunity to use their own words, in written novels or stories.  Twain uses the language that Jim would have used during this time period. At that time, African American people were thought of as unintelligent and really of no use other than to be slaves. However, Jim is shown to be compassionate, loving, trusting and a loyal friend.  In the book, How to Interpret Literature, Robert Parker writes about “the dehumanizing pain of racial labeling and generalizing, where African American men described how it felt when people reduced them to nothing more than a derogatory slur or a racial label” (Parker 303). Yes, there are many times that the “n-word” is used. Over 200 times.  Lombardi maintains that Twain wanted the book to be as authentic as possible and depict the culture and the verbiage of the time period (Lombardi). This book brought light to how slaves were treated and the effects that slavery had on people. Robert Dale Parker says, “White people push back against the concept of white privilege because they recall the hardships that they have suffered and think that therefore they have no advantages. But the concept of white privilege does not mean that white people never face hardship. It means that such hardships as they may face do not come from other people’s responses to their whiteness” (Parker 335). This excerpt is especially important when looking at The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and the role of Jim. Jim would not have had to go through all the horrible and degrading events in his life if it weren’t for the color of the skin.  This century-old story is more relevant now about how people should treat each other. Jim treats everyone with kindness. He is open-hearted and sensitive to the feelings of others. The rough language and the racial slurs of this book are what caused it to be banned, almost immediately after publication. However, the author did not intend for it to come across as racist or derogatory in any way towards African-American people. His intention was to shine a light on racism.

This book has been dragged through the mud in terms of how it relates to minorities, including women. Many critics say that the role of women in this book is minute and has been a hot topic for many college students and scholars.  While The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is mainly about two male characters and their adventure, females do play an integral part in the story. Feminism at its core, is simply a term that supports women’s rights. As Parker indicates, “At its most fundamental level, feminism is a simple concept.  It is about taking women seriously and respectfully.” (Parker 152) Mark Twain was notorious for his admiration of women. Most of the women in the novel are depicted better than the men. There are several minor female characters throughout the book. Mrs. Loftus, Aunt Polly and Aunt Sally are the main three female characters.

Towards the beginning of the book (Chapter XI), Huck dresses as a girl and goes into town. He does this to see if the townspeople are still looking for him and for Jim. Mrs. Loftus is the first woman he meets.  She is written as witty and intelligent. She says to him, “You do a girl tolerable poor, but you might fool men, maybe” (Twain 46) She gives him a few pointers about how to thread a needle how to sit properly. She never once degrades him or tries to embarrass him. She is sweet towards him and possibly feels sorry for him. However, she is bright and cunning. Huck eventually decides that he cannot follow all the rules of being a girl and decides to just be himself. For the three women, second-wave feminism is the theme, more specifically, difference feminism and cultural feminism.  Parker writes, “Second-wave feminism can sometimes be under such rubrics as cultural feminism, which claimed a women’s culture that was kinder, gentler and more peaceful than the dominant culture” (Parker 153).

The next two women are Aunt Polly and Aunt Sally. The two women are sisters. They are both the aunts of Tom Sawyer.  Aunt Polly is Tom’s legal guardian. The readers were introduced to her in the previous novel. Towards the end of the book, Jim has been captured and sold for forty dollars to the Phelps farm. The Phelps farm is managed by Silas Phelps, who is married to Sally.  Huck finds out Jim’s location, and he sets out to the Phelps farm. As he is walking up to the farm, one of the servants starts to run out after him with a rolling pin. Just then, Sally Phelps comes out and says to Huck, (thinking he’s really Tom) “It’s you, at last! – Aint’ it?” (Twain 166). The whole family is very happy to see him, and Huck Finn is confused as to who they think he is. It isn’t until Sally decides to play a joke on her husband Silas that Huck finally figures out that the Phelps family thinks that he is Tom Sawyer. The next day, Huck tells the Phelps family that he must go into town, because that is where his luggage is. While in town, Huck finds the real Tom Sawyer. Tom is happy to see Huck because he thought that Huck had been murdered, but Huck explains how he faked his own death and that Jim was with him and now Jim has been sold to the Phelps. At this point, the real Tom Sawyer decides that he is going to say that he is his own brother, Sid, and help Huck get Jim back. So, they come up with an elaborate plan to help Jim escape.  While Huck and Tom are trying to free Jim, Tom is shot in the leg.  Jim makes a selfless decision to stay with Tom instead of running towards his freedom as the plan had originally been.  As the doctor comes to tend to Tom, he tells the townspeople that Jim never tried to run away or even lift an oar. Huck says, “I was mighty thankful to that old doctor for doing Jim that good turn; and I was glad it was according to my judgement of him, too; because I thought he had a good heart in him and he was a good man, the first time I see him” (Twain 215). This shows the compassion and the friendship that Huck and Jim have for each other. Huck considers Jim his friend. However, the happy time stops there. The townspeople lock Jim in heavy chains and put him back in the cabin with only bread and water.

Tom at this point, is very upset about the condition that Jim is in. Tom is furious when he hears about Jim being locked up again. He says, “They hain’t no right to shut him up! Shove!0 and don’t you lose a minute. Turn him loose! He ain’t no slave; he’s as free as any creetur that walks this earth!” (Twain 217). Aunt Sally doesn’t believe Tom and he continues, “I mean every word I say, Aunt Sally, and if somebody don’t go, I’ll go. I’ve knowed him all his life.  Miss Watson died two months ago and she was ashamed she was ever going to sell him down the river, and said so; and she set him free in his will” (Twain 217). Then, Aunt Sally says, “Then what on earth did you want to set him free for, seeing he was already free?” “Well, that is a question, I must say; and just like women! I wanted the adventure of it!” (Twain 217-218). Just then, Polly comes in. When Tom says, “just” like women” to Aunt Sally, it is another form of second-wave feminism, specifically difference feminism. He is capitalizing on her superiority and attempting to make her sound condescending towards him. Tom is frustrated with her because she isn’t listening to what he is saying, and then she asks him why he did something if he already knew the truth.

Tom and Huck both know that their scam has been brought to light when they see Aunt Polly standing at the door just then. “If she wasn’t standing there, just inside the door, looking as sweet and contented as an angel half-full of pie, I wish I may never!” (Twain 218). The two sisters hug, and Huck hides under the bed for fear of what will happen to him when Aunt Sally sees him. Well, Aunt Polly said that when Aunt Sally wrote to her that Tom and Sid had come, she says to herself: “Look at that, now! I might have expected it, letting him go off that way without anybody to watch him. So now I got to go and trapse all the way down the river, eleven hundred mile, and find out what that creetur’s up to, this time; as long as I couldn’t seem to get any answer out of you about it” (Twain 219). “Why, I never heard nothing from you, “ says Aunt Sally. “Well, I wonder! Why, I wrote to you twice, to ask you what you could mean by Sid being here.” “Well, I never got ‘em Sis”(Twain 219). Aunt Polly then turns around and looks at Tom and knows that he didn’t give her the letters. But, then, she says, “No, it come yesterday. I hain’t read it yet, but it’s all right, I’ve got that one” (Twain 219). Aunt Polly is showing her maternal side to Tom and not wanting him to get into too much trouble.

This correspondence is important to the feministic theory. In How to Interpret Literature, Parker speaks about the Bechdel test. “Alison Bechdel proposes the following three criteria for judging a film worth watching, or a book worth reading. One, the book/film must have two women. Two, the women must talk to each other. Lastly, the women must talk about something other than a man” (Parker 157). Therefore, the interaction between the two sisters indeed passes the Bechdel test. They not only wrote letters to each other, but they also have an in-person conversation with each other.

Aunt Polly hears Tom pleading with Sally about Jim when she comes into the house. She confirms that Tom is, indeed, correct. She goes on to say that old Miss Watson did set Jim free in her will. Tom has taken all that trouble and bother to free a free man. Aunt Polly is the hero of the story because she proves that Tom is telling the truth, and everyone immediately runs and unchains Jim. When Uncle Silas and Aunt Sally find out the truth about how Jim helped the doctor, they make a “heap of fuss over him, and fixed him up prime, and give him all he wanted to eat, and a good time, and nothing to do” (Twain 220). Aunt Polly is the sole reason that Jim is freed. She proves herself to be a fine aunt, woman and a reliable source of information.

The women in book are kind to Huckleberry Finn. They give him excellent advice and provide motherly figures as well. The women are written to be intelligent and well-spoken for the time period. During this time, women were viewed as inferior to men. Women were not commonly given their own voice. These qualities all depict second-wave feminism and the kinder, gentler notion of women. It also represents difference feminism which according to Parker, “was less interested in equal rights than in establishing women’s difference and superiority. Second-wave feminism often focused on a sense of sisterhood and shared identity among all women” (Parker 153). Polly and Sally are actual sisters and thus the sense of solidarity is shown. However, there is a shared identity among the women and how they treat Huck. The women also treat Jim kindly at the end as well.  Jim is finally treated the way that he should have been all along.

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a wonderful book that highlights the positive characteristics of otherwise misrepresented minorities. The author, Mark Twain, exposes hypocrisy in the social classes and the racial injustices of that time period. Twain also gives a voice to the people that normally would not be allowed to speak. “For most of Twain's life, he railed against enslavement in letters, essays, and novels as an evil manifestation of man's inhumanity to man. He eventually became a crusader against the thinking that sought to justify it” (Lombardi).

Works Cited

Lombardi, Esther. "Mark Twain's Views on Enslavement." ThoughtCo. 26 Aug 2020. https://thoughtco.com/mark-twain-write-about-slavery-740681. Accessed 25 Feb      2021.

Parker, Robert. How to Interpret Literature. Fourth Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019.

Twain, Mark. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Dover Thrift Editions. Mineola, New York:
            Dover Publications, Inc, 1994.

Structuralism & New Criticism for Emily

by Alexis Eaves

While personages may mistake codes for only mathematical and scientific purposes, the most desirable works of literature follow a set of theories that serve the reader. Author William Faulkner wrote, "WHEN Miss Emily Grierson died, our whole town went to her funeral: the men through a sort of respectful affection for a fallen monument, the women mostly out of curiosity to see the inside of her house, which no one save an old man-servant-a combined gardener and cook – had seen in at least ten years" (1). These words inform the reader of the story-line ahead surrounding "A Rose for Emily." Every story has a list of ingredients which are essential to the telling, and "[t]he first sentence places the novel into a set of cultural codes" (Parker 69). William Faulkner's tale of Emily Grierson exemplifies how structuralism and new criticism enhance the reader’s journey.

In a neighborhood that was once occupied by the august names, the viewers acknowledge a woman named Emily through the townsfolk's perspective. Within this anecdote, the audience is introduced to structuralism, which understands concepts through their relation to other concepts. Emily was once a symbol of status; however, her status soon diminished when her father passed. The public paints Emily as an outcast who believes she's more significant than everyone else. The narratology provides insight into the individual narrative, which identifies as a telling. The telling explains a sequence of events in the order they are told, not necessarily chronological, thus leaving gaps within the timeline.

Upon further explanation, narration has four frequently discussed categories that help magnify Faulkner's telling: embedding, reliability, focalization, and disclosure. Embedding, also known as nesting, is referred to as stories within a story. While Faulkner assembles Emily's tale, there are steppingstones buried within from other characters along the way. For instance, the argument among Judge Steven and the town lady as well as the older people's gossip about 'poor Emily' are mini stories within to guide the tale along.

On another note, reliability allows the audience to associate with the character and feel an emotional response. As mentioned, Emily is illustrated as an outcast. Anyone who has ever been isolated can relate to that feeling of loneliness as well as the gossip that may follow. Also, falling in love is a common theme. In this scenario, Emily falls in love with Homer who does not return her feelings. Many can relate when the desired person doesn't share the same sentiment. Focalization often refers to the point of view. Who or what is being focalized? In this case, the spotlight falls on Emily Grierson. Meanwhile, discourse is the style of narration. "A Rose for Emily" shares a free indirect discourse due to its mysterious ambiance. There is no straightforward answer; the audience is kept wondering until the very end. Most free indirect discourse is told in the third person, which Emily's tale is narrated. In short, Faulkner structures Emily's story through the telling of the townsfolk while using the four narration such as embedding, reliability, focalization, and free indirect discourse.

While the first sentence of the narrative introduces the aesthetic codes, the remainder of the piece refines the literature through structuralism as well as new criticism. "Close reading, evidence from the text, pay attention to the text itself, pay attention to the words on the page, unpack the words" (Parker 11); all these phrases play a role in new criticism. Literature is full of crafty terms that evolve collectively to make readers think about the author's work of fiction. When interpreting a systematic approach, there are four critical overlapping concepts: paradox, ambiguity, tension, and irony.

At the beginning of Emily's tale, Faulkner utilizes irony to introduce Emily's persona. In this case, irony is a rhetorical device in which the situation appears to be expected yet differs from what it truly is. Emily is presented as a woman who accepts no charity. However, Major Colonel Sartoris, a friend to her deceased father, invented a tale that her father had loaned money to the town. Meanwhile, to pay it forward, Emily would not have to pay taxes. The author portrays Emily as this high-end woman who can fend for herself, but yet she accepts charity. Whether she takes it knowingly or not, the mystery remains. The Board of Aldermen came years later to address the scandal, but Emily persisted, "I have no taxes in Jefferson" (Faulkner 1). Ironically, her charity died with Colonel Sartoris.

In part two, the author proceeds with the concept of ambiguity- the quality of being open to more than one interpretation. Out of the five senses, one could argue smell is the most durable. "So SHE vanquished them, horse and foot, just as she had vanquished their fathers thirty years before about the smell" (Faulkner 2). The townsfolk provided multiple explanations for the smell that developed around Emily's house. Perhaps, the servant couldn't cook properly, or the servant killed a varmint and failed to dispose of it. Readers can develop theories too; however, referring to the free indirect discourse, they'll never know for sure, especially as to why precisely, after a week or two, the smell suddenly went away. Did the lime that the men sprinkled among the house help, or did Emily do something? In the same sense, one could dispute the smell is a cry for help concerning the victim locked away inside. Of course, the smell could be a comforting feeling for dear Emily to know her loved one is there to stay.

As the story-line progresses, the tension swells. From the night she sat in the window watching the men sprinkle the lime to buying rat poison, the tension continues to build, evoking the reader's emotion. The audience gets lured into Emily's narrative, much like the townsfolk. "Poor Emily" (Faulkner 3). These two words, spoken by the townspeople, hold a cluster of meaning. The people of the town use these words to describe Emily after her affiliation with Homer Barron, who identifies as homosexual. It's ambiguous because they pity 'poor Emily.' While she has status and money, she falters in securing a love of her own. It's ironic because Emily is from a high-class family, which is why it can also be classified under a paradox, for the statement contradicts itself. A paradox is an absurd proposition that, when investigated, may be proven correct. The end of the story promotes multiple contradictions when describing a decomposed Homer. For instance, "profound and fleshless grin," "now the long sleep that outlasts love," and "even the grimace of love, had cuckolded him" (Faulkner 6) all sound like disturbing visuals when love is meant to have the opposite effect. However, poor Emily pulled the short straw. Instead of experiencing love, she underwent this hope of being loved. The outcome- not likely, much like Homer ever leaving Emily’s house again. It is through paradox, irony, ambiguity, and tension that new criticism complements the telling.

In conclusion, structuralism and new criticism are key ingredients in enhancing the reader's experience, as demonstrated in "A Rose for Emily." The audience learns about Emily through the townspeople’s perspectives. Embedding, reliability, focalization, and free indirect disclosure are the sugar in the cake that the audience wouldn’t notice until they’re in mid bite. In the second bite, the viewers become aware of the irony, ambiguity, tension, and paradox that balance the literature much like icing on a cake. It is the ingredients in the theories that allow readers to reflect on the details that inspire a great story.

Works Cited

Faulkner, William, and M T. Inge. A Rose for Emily. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1970.

Parker, Robert D. How to Interpret Literature: Critical Theory for Literary and Cultural Studies.  New York: Oxford University Press, 2020.

Critical Memo Regarding the Effectiveness of No-Excuse Charter Schools

by Jonathan Fleming

            For quite some time, there has been a debate about how to close the racial educational gap between white and black students. This gap is a lingering scar created by the racially divisive laws enacted before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Many would argue that the gap is held in place by racially motivated rules and policies still today. This gap is further held in place by directly tying school funding to local property taxes, an approach that ensures that schools within impoverished communities remain underfunded. These national and local policies have a negative effect on the achievement of students attending public schools in urban and disadvantaged communities. While there have been many solutions proposed to narrow this gap, one of the most controversial, though arguably most significant, policies is the No-Excuse perspective used in many charter schools.

            The No-Excuse perspective stems from the viewpoints expressed in a 2003 book by Abigail and Stephan Thernstrom called No excuses: Closing the racial gap in learning. This perspective seeks to reduce the educational gap between urban, impoverished, and mostly black communities and their suburban, wealthy, and mostly white counterparts. Many charter schools within these rural communities have adopted the No-Excuse model to improve the quality of education.

            No-Excuse charter schools focus predominately on raising the math and literacy of their students. They are often characterized as having stringent behavioral codes and high academic expectations for their students. Charter schools that operate under this perspective focus on college preparation and, in this way, create a college-going culture that places college attendance as a priority over other career possibilities.

            The efficacy and ethicality of the No-Excuse perspective is hotly debated. While some see the increase in literacy and math levels, as well as the increase in college attendance as evidence that the perspective as a whole has a positive impact, others argue that the punitive nature and rigorous and inflexible expectations can harm the psychological wellbeing of the students served by No-Excuse charter schools.

             A meta-analysis of No-Excuse charter schools conducted by the University of Arkansas outlined several positive effects that these charter schools had on narrowing the educational gap between white and black students. The study found that No-Excuse charter schools positively impacted student achievement in both math and literacy levels. No-Excuse charter school students’ achievement was 0.25 standard deviations higher in math and 0.15 standard deviations higher on literature than traditional public-school students (Cheng et al.). The study further concluded that “A straightforward extrapolation of these results suggests that attending a No Excuses charter school for four to five years could eliminate the achievement gap” (Cheng et al.). These findings offer a compelling argument about the efficacy of the No-Excuse perspective in closing the educational gap between white and black students.

            Opponents of the No-Excuse perspective believe that utilizing such a perspective will cause lasting psychological harm in the students being educated. They think that the punitive nature of the philosophy, along with its unwavering expectations, will place excessive stress upon the students, which will cause them to develop low self-esteem. They further argue that the expectation to attend a college or university does not allow the students to pursue different career paths that would not require post-secondary education.

            Given how effective the No-Excuse perspective is in narrowing the educational gap for black and impoverished students, such a system has its place in the American education system. Such a perspective’s rigorous expectations can have a lasting impact on the mental health of the students. Therefore, any school district leader that is considering adopting the No-Excuse perspective should firstly take their student’s needs and demographics into account. They must ascertain whether their students are victims of the racial/economic educational gap and if other alternatives would not be sufficient. If it is believed that the No-Excuse perspective would be most beneficial for the students and necessary to reduce the educational gap they are experiencing, then a robust mental health awareness and assistance policy should be adopted and integrated within that school system at the same time to offset any psychological harm that the perspective may cause.

            The legacy of harmful, racially motivated policies in our past has left lasting, diverse challenges that our educational system still faces to this day. And overcoming those challenges will be difficult and complicated. Any solution that will be presented will also present new challenges as it seeks to solve existing ones. Given how necessary it is to address the racial educational gap in this nation, the No-Excuse perspective, with its triumphs and failings, is a potential solution to this problem that we have faced for generations. But this perspective cannot stand alone, and its negative consequences must be addressed in its implementation through sound and intentional mental health education and assistance.

Works Cited

Cheng, A., Hitt, C., Kisida, B. (2015) No Excuses Charter Schools: A Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence of Student Achievement. Fayetteville, Arkansas: University of Arkansas.